Williams & Mohammed, 2009, for further discussion). Although most stressful experiences do not increase vulnerability to illness, certain kinds of stressors-those that are uncontrollable and unpredictable-are particularly harmful to health, and these characteristics are common to discrimination experiences (see D. One way to understand the experience of discrimination is that it is a stressor that can broadly impact health. We also systematically examined whether these relationships vary on the basis of gender or race and ethnicity. In addition, we tested the strength of our discrimination model in which we identify specific pathways by which health is likely to be affected. The meta-analysis we present enables deeper insights than past reviews by systematically examining the strength of the evidence for the effect of discrimination on multiple health outcomes. However, none of the prior reviews of the association of discrimination to health document the quantitative nature of this relationship. Williams & Mohammed, 2009, for a review). Perceived discrimination has also been linked to specific types of physical health problems, such as hypertension, self-reported poor health, and breast cancer, as well as potential risk factors for disease, such as obesity, high blood pressure, and substance use (see, e.g., D. Williams, Neighbors, & Jackson, 2003 Paradies, 2006). A number of comprehensive literature reviews find substantial evidence-from both laboratory and community studies- for the harmful health effects of discrimination across a range of mental health outcomes including depression, psychological distress, anxiety, and well-being (e.g., D. Although the expression of outright discrimination has been greatly reduced in recent decades, more subtle and chronic forms of discrimination are still very real for certain groups in our society.
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